How do you think domestic and foreign intelligence should work in this Assignment

How do you think domestic and foreign intelligence should work in this country - Assignment Example Foreign intelligence encompasses security surveillance orchestrated by cross-border powers and personalities. Intelligence service is the most sensitive national institution that must be accorded utmost autonomy to prevent the country from vulnerability to terrorist attack. America being the presumed global superpower is a target for terrorism and other forms of violent attacks. The U.S. depends on both its domestic and foreign intelligence information to fight and or contain the world’s terrorism. It requires a highly confidential, competent and effective intelligence service both from domestic instruments and from foreign input (Marks, 2010). After the September 11 attacks, cooperation and close coordination is required between national and international intelligence in America (Marks, 2010). However, there should not be complete merge of the two institutions. While they should cooperate to deliver coinciding information, their individual autonomy should also have clear demarcation. The country’s security management should establish a central coordinating body that harmonizes information dissemination from either side of the security institutions. The role of this body would be to provide further scrutiny to the intelligence information before delivering credible vigilant information to the government. The specific roles of these two institutions should also have distinct stipulations to avoid conflict and duplication of surveillance information. Furthermore, the authenticity of foreign intelligence surveillance is dully enshrined in the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of

Understanding Fully Experience on the Perspective of Art Essay Example for Free

Understanding Fully Experience on the Perspective of Art Essay Experience remains to be a subjective issue for persons who happened to encounter important or non-important events in their lives that seem to have made an impact. In terms of art and esthetics, experience also manifests in the condition of subjectivity, however misconceptions and uncertainty arises because of the lack of deeper understanding on how experience affects this field. This paper seeks to elaborate on three arguments presented by John Dewey with regards to his book â€Å"Art as an experience†. Experience according to the essay is vital in the appreciation and understanding of esthetics and art. Experience in this vital sense is defined by those situations and episodes that we spontaneously refer to as being â€Å"real experiences†; those things of which we say in recalling them, â€Å"that was an experience†. (Dewey, 1980, p. 37) The paper will now argue on a point elaborated by the author. The first argument is whether an esthetic experience is deduced in the element of the intellectual or the emotional. Dewey first mentioned the idea’s surrounding esthetic experience to be intellectually oriented and at the same time elaborated on the idea of how these experiences are linked into the emotional side of man. In short, esthetic cannot be sharply marked off from intellectual experience since the latter must bear an esthetic stamp to be itself complete. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 40) In short, the author sees that there must be a balance and correlation between the emotional and intellectual aspects of man in understanding experiences. In response to the first argument presented by Dewey, the paper agrees to the author that a balance must be set in order for esthetic experience to be fully understood. Moreover, one’s ideas is subjective in its sense that application of one aspect alone cannot fully explain and elaborate ones initial or total experience per se. Giving oneself the understanding that to fully appreciate the esthetic value of experience one must be able to bridge the gap and link the emotional as well as the intellectual appreciation of man. The next argument presented by Dewey also has the connection with the first argument he elaborated regarding the idea of emotional and intellectual capacity of man and to associate it with experience. There are therefore common patterns in various experiences, no matter how unlike they are to one another in the details of their subject matter. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 45) In another argument, Dewey points out the idea of doing and undergoing in relation with experience. In this light, Dewey points out that these processes are related in to the concepts related to art; artistic and esthetic. â€Å"Since ‘artistic† refers primarily to the act of production and â€Å"esthetic† to that of perception and enjoyment, the absence of a term designating the two processes taken together is unfortunate. (Dewey, 1980, p. 48) The author tried to point out that these two must never be separated from one another but instead these two ideas are correlated when it comes to experience. Dewey establishes the connection between the four ideas. He linked artistic as a form of doing while esthetic to the concept of undergoing. Dewey further pointed out by saying: â€Å"however as well as the relation that exists in having an experience between doing and undergoing, indicate that the distinction between esthetic and artistic cannot be pressed so far to become a separation. (Dewey, 1980, p. 49) The paper agrees with the author regarding the issue that the idea of undergoing and doing given in the concepts of esthetic and artistic respectively must never be separated in the field of art experience. The paper also agrees with Dewey’s claim that â€Å"to be truly artistic, a work must also be esthetic† (Dewey, 1980, p. 49) There must be a distinct connection between the two ideas since an appreciation of only one aspect would only make the experience incomplete or depriving on the part of the person. To be able to understand fully the art experience given one must be able to combine the feelings of the doer (artist) and in turn internalize the effect it does to the person which is denoted by the process of undergoing (esthetic). The paper agrees to the idea of Dewey by saying: â€Å"art, in its form, unites the very same relation of doing and undergoing, outgoing and incoming energy, that makes an experience to be an experience. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 50) The last argument that the paper will focus on is the idea elaborated by Dewey with regards to the idea of how an individual sees art; perception or recognition. The author emphasizes this importance because this understanding will determine whether an individual fully comprehends and accepts the experience fully given by an art. He first elaborated on the individual meanings of the two and reiterated that it is better for perception to occur rather than recognition. â€Å"Perception is an act of the going-out of energy in order to receive, not a withholding of energy. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 55) He pointed that undergoing the process of recognition rather than perception would only lead to a minimal level of experience that is inadequate or deprived of the full appreciation of the experience. Recognition is perception arrested before it has a chance to develop freely. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 54) In reaction to the argument pointed out by Dewey, I would have to agree that perception is better than recognition in experiencing art. The paper points out this fact because with the idea of recognition, the individual only perceives an art based on the parameters that it is enclosed with. The deeper meaning and concept of an art is not really looked into. On the other hand, perception tries to give a holistic glimpse of the art experience to the individual. Yes, both ideas can give an individual the art experience that it desires however, the previous showcases an experience that is minimal compared to the latter. In conclusion, the paper showcased different arguments presented by Dewey in relation to understanding the art experience felt by individuals. Furthermore, the paper elaborated on issues and arguments that arouses from the idea. The concept of art experience can indeed benefit the individual more if these things were to be understood and studied by each person.

The female criminality

The female criminality INTRODUCTION Women, undeniably, have been all but invisible for much of criminologys history.[1] Women have never been as prominent as their male counterparts in criminology, so much so, they can be said to have been ignored for many centuries and it was not until the turn of the 20th century that women who committed crimes were really included in criminological discourse. The advent of the feminist movements throughout this time beginning with the suffragettes to the current Fawcett commission established in 2003, has seen the realisation of womens rights and the struggle for equality supposedly at an end. But as we will see, non-feminist explanations for female criminality still leave much to be desired of as most parts of criminology along with society appears to be wedded to the conventional and stereotypical views of women, with the feminist explanations casting a new view on how women ought to be studied within the field of criminology. This paper aims to discuss and evaluate the various criminological explanations of womens involvement in crime, and suggest possibilities that obviate the traditional reasoning which passes female criminality off as purely biological. The discussion of the criminological explanations will take on two focal threads: why some women commit crime and why the majority do not. Using government statistics from England and Wales, specifically those after the second wave of the feminist movement in the 1960s and the present day, incidence, types and trends of female criminality will be explored. After the issues and problems within the statistics have been identified, I will then discuss whether criminologists can explain conclusively the reason for these findings. Do we need to study female criminality? Criminology is the study of crime which endeavours to explain and find solutions for deviant behaviour, yet there also needs to be a reason why this certain behaviour requires explanation. The theory welcomed by the government is that crime is conduct which has been agreed as contrary to the norms of society. Deviant behaviour is a problem which needs to be resolved, and once the problems have been acknowledged, policy makers can then make decisions and laws based on finding solutions to these problems. Smart notes that only those topics officially designated as social problems are studied, which she articulates is responsible for the sorry state of current knowledge and work on female criminality[2]; women are not seen as a problem, yet they live in the same world as men but commit less crime. This creates a great opportunity for society; finding underlying reasons why women do not commit as much crime as men could possibly be replicated to reduce the number of men committing crimes, or at least aid in the general control of crime. However, according to the Youth Justice Board in 2009, the relatively lower number of young women engaged in offending has meant, however, that most research and expertise has been developed in response to male offending[3]. Gender is one of the most certain predictors of offending[4], and women have never been seen as a social problem because their deviant acts in relation to men are very low. But as is sometimes suggested, statistical quantity alone is not sufficient to explain their lack of treatment.[5] Equality to men was the driving factor for the Womens Movements, but this immediately suggests that women are to be studied as a different entity, unduly undermining any common notion of equality from the outset. Arguably however, this hypothesis is true on some levels, but the equality women strive for is not equality of treatment, but equality of outcome. There are various stereotypical explanations for womens criminality which throughout history have been dominated by internal reasons; biology and psychology. However, what is interesting is how differently men are studied; from the outside. Rather than stating a man has an innate propensity for violence and deviant behaviour in his biological make-up, theorists use external reasons such as economical and class based expectations to explain behaviour. Women do not get the benefit of wholly non-biological determinist reasoning and it could be concluded that it is entirely their fault for simply being born a woman (e.g. Lombrosos female born criminals). In addition to this, female criminality needs to be studied so equality in outcome can be achieved from a justice perspective. Regarding the expectations of women in a social context, which will be discussed in depth later, if a woman was to act as expected, they are likely to be looked upon as the stereotypical weak and fragile being which needs protecting and this can be used to their advantage. But then also the opposite must not be ignored in that if they do not conform to the stereotypical female state then they will be twice condemned, which is extraordinarily unfair from a feminist perspective. Substitution and the media Hypothetically reversing the position of men and women, performed throughout this paper, when contrasting the consideration and study given to both sexes, is a very useful tool to shake out gender issues in criminality. The proliferation of the media also works to the same effect in that when one is to contrast coverage of crimes committed by men, they seem extremely commonplace and the public hardly blink an eye, but when the likes of Myra Hindley and Rosemary West committed perhaps masculine crimes, they were incredibly newsworthy. This can be down to the utmost shock that a woman has committed a crime and this produces a double deviance theory. Even now we do not expect women to behave in a criminal and inappropriate fashion, and the public are utterly shocked when we hear that a mother with the qualities of being tender and caring has shaken her baby to death. Heidensohn concurs, women involved in very serious crimes seem to provide the media with some of their most compelling images of crime and deviance.'[6] THE CRIMES WOMEN COMMIT: INCIDENCE AND TRENDS Despite their various shortcomings, the methods for measuring crime, such as police recorded crime statistics published annually by the Home Office and the British Crime Survey (BCS), have been able to provide an indication of crime trends in England and Wales. The statistics must be viewed with wary eyes because of the discussion that surrounds unreported crime which leads to resources being allocated into improving the collation of statistics; it should not be ignored that this improvement could account for a vast increase in crime rates. In addition to this, the numbers for women are very low to start with, so any slight increase could lead to a huge percentage increase which would skew the findings. Despite this, they will be used to show the incidence and trends in womens offending from: overall gender comparison, women under and over 18, the types of crime women are committing and finally cautioning rates. Gender and the feminist movements Although women gained more presence in society, the vote, property rights and other social triumphs in the first wave of the feminist movements at the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, it is really only during the second wave in the 1960s and 1970s that there was a substantial change in the general and criminal behaviour of women which would attract academic and critical comment. The criminal statistics saw a huge boost in numbers of women represented across the board: in 1958, the number of women found guilty for all indictable offences was 17,380: in 1965 this increased to 31,011, and amidst the full swing of the second wave of the feminist movement, in 1975 the number was at its highest at 60,356. In the 1960s, the ratio between men and women again for being found guilty of all indictable offences went down slightly also (from 7:1 to 6:1). The following decades saw a gradual decrease in numbers in the same respect, and in 2007 the numbers were 267,000 men to 45,300 w omen for both sexes and the ratio still lies at 6:1. The trend to be carried forward is that it remains consistent that women commit less crimes than men overall, and the highest increase in female crime was in the 1970s. Age The estimated peak age of offending is 15 for girls (and 17 for boys). According to a Ministry of Justice publication Statistics on Women and the Criminal Justice System[7] a higher proportion of all women arrested were aged between 10 and 17 than the proportion of men in that age group who were arrested, 25.7 per cent compared to 20.5 per cent. In addition to this, a study in 2009 by the Youth Justice Board[8] found that the offences most frequently committed by adolescent girls are theft and handling stolen goods, and that there has been a proliferation in the amount of girls committing violence against the person, especially if there is an existing relationship with the victim. It is also noted that recent use of alcohol is often linked to the offence/offending pattern. Home Office Statistics show the ratio of men to women found guilty or cautioned for all indictable offences is 3:1 for adolescents and 4:1 for adult women. From this two distinct trends can be deduced; there is what Worral describes as a problem population of young girls committing more crime, especially violent crime, than their older equivalent, and, that as a women gets older she is less likely to commit crime (desistence). Types of Crime As Smart notices, the proportion of women who engage in crime varies quite considerably according to the nature of the offence[9]. From the Home Office statistics for 2008/09[10] it can be seen that there are large differences between women and men in terms of their involvement with the formal criminal justice system, notably, and obviously, less women across all areas of crime. However, there appears to be a rise in theft, especially shoplifting which Smart terms a sex-related offence, a crime that has a preponderance to be committed by one sex more than the other. It follows then that this is the only area where women make significant contribution to the numbers; in 2007, 52,100 women were found guilty or cautioned for theft, the ratio between men and women is a mere 2:1. Although the ratio for fraud and forgery is also 2:1, the numbers are smaller: 9,500 women being found guilty or cautioned. By contrast, the highest ratio between men and women is that of burglary at 15:1 in 2007. The most prolific offence seen in the statistics is that of violence, but it appears to be low-level violence, harassment compared to men. Although it appears that it is more abundant for adolescent girls recently, over the last few decades there has been a dramatic increase of violence in women of all ages. For example, in 1965, 827 were found guilty of violence against the person: either murder, manslaughter, death by dangerous driving, assault or wounding. In 1975 this increased to 2,748 and then to 3,600 in 1985. In 1995 there was a slight, but not significant, decrease in (both men and) women committing violence against the person and until 2007 the number has steadily increased again to 4,500, the ratio since 1995 becoming closer (10:1 to 8:1 respectively). There has been a preponderance of women committing property offences, especially robbery as from the 1970s to present; the incidence has more than quadrupled from 200 in 1978 to 900 in 2007. Finally, according to the Women and the Criminal Justice System statistics[11], the violence that women commit is interfamily; partners and children, and homicides appear to be committed against intimate partners. Cautioning rates Women are more likely to be cautioned than men. Overall in 2007, 56% of women were cautioned instead of being officially processed by the courts for indictable offences compared to 36% of men. It was the same nearly 10 years ago also as in 1991, it was 54%. Looking at the cautioning rate for theft in 2007, out of 52,100 women, 26,000 were cautioned. In regards to violence against the person, 12,700 were cautioned out of 17,200 women. Since 2001 penalty notices for disorder (PND) can be issued for  £50 or  £80 depending on the severity of the offence. Inclusive of all ages, the Statistics on Women and the CJS found that in 2008/09 the top three reasons for issuing a penalty notice of disorder (PND) to women were: theft (retail under  £200) 20,453 (49%); causing harassment alarm or distress 8,051 (20%); and being drunk and disorderly 7,520 (18%) notably all of these appearing to require no physical strength. Although the amount of PNDs being issued has decreased from 207,544 in 2007 to 176,164 in 2008, there was a smaller decrease for the amount issued to women than to men. According to the Ministry of Justice, PNDs were designed to be a simpler and swift way for the criminal justice system to deal with low level criminal behaviour. CRIMINOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS Classical Criminology Early or classical criminologists accounted for female criminality on biological grounds; describing the psychological, physiological and hormonal characteristics of female criminals, or emphasising that their crimes were sexually based. Biological determinism is perhaps historically the most common yet underdeveloped explanation for female criminality, and has dominated discourse for a dreadfully long time, even intertwining itself into modern and contemporary theories despite mass criticism. Women being studied biologically can be immediately contrasted with the study of male criminality which, as Morris suggests[12], has nearly always used specifically socio-economic explanations such as subculture or labelling theory. Cesare Lombroso was the main projector of biological determinism, but this concept can be seen in the early works of W. I. Thomas and Otto Pollak in general, especially in regards to sexual delinquency. Thomas work was written in what Smart describes as the transitional period where criminology became more liberal. Pollak, although his work was carried out a long time after Lombrosos, is classed along with Lombroso and Thomas as a classical criminologist in that they all shared the same conventional views of women as Heidensohn summarises succinctly, Their view of women is heavily stereotyped. Women are defined according to domestic and sexual roles; they are dominated by biological imperatives; they are emotional and irrational.[13] Modern biological explanations have been exampled in this paper to highlight that biological theories remain to this day and when read in light of social theories, biological explanations as far as they go to explain female criminality, tell us more about societys perception of women than anything else. Lombroso One cannot read any textbook related to theories of female criminality without encountering at least a brief mention of the criminological pioneer Cesare Lombroso, whose work, in particular The Female Offender'[14], made specific mention of female criminals for perhaps the first time. Although completely discredited now, the mere fact that women became a topic of study was a phenomenal feat for criminology. With his son-in-law Ferrero and the help of others, along with the emphasis on scientific based study, Lombroso looked initially at 26 skulls and 5 skeletons of female offenders, namely prostitutes, 60 criminal subjects who died in prison and 17 others along with studying photo-portraits. The offences they were said to have committed were those such as infanticide, complicity in rape, arson, theft, homicide, abortion and poisoning. One of the studies within this work regarded the skull capacity and size. They were measured on account of each crime, and such conclusions were made for example, that fallen women have the smaller cranial capacity of all [offering] more analogy to the mentally afflicted than the sane. Essentially, Lombroso was explaining that women commit crime because of physical defects, and they were from the outset born criminals because of this. According to Newburns summary, Lombrosos female born criminal would specialise in not just one but several types of crime a nd surpasses her male counterpart in the refined, diabolical cruelty in which she commits her crimes and therefore a female criminal is a true monster. Also, Lombrosos theory perhaps edged towards the later idea of double deviance, in that the female criminal was doubly exceptionalbecause criminals are exceptions among civilised people and women are exceptions among criminals[15]. On the other hand, in explaining why women did not commit as much crime as men, he argued that firstly there were far fewer female born criminals than males and secondly and more offensive to read nowadays, he suggested criminal women were atavistic; a manifestation of the idea that women were not fully evolved, had underdeveloped intelligence and had less scope for degeneration. Criminality therefore was defined as a mental illness, because womens normal psychology was piety and weakness which meant the normal woman would not have the predisposition to commit crimes due to lack of intelligence, and were not affected by environmental issues as men would be. Evaluating this theory with modern eyes, the criticisms of this study are obvious, but one cannot lose context of the time in which it was carried out. It was, despite its failure, an undoubtedly sincere attempt to justify certain beliefs and theories.[16] However, it was completely ignored that the beliefs were founded on premises so naà ¯ve. Also, the theory suggests that there should be more women committing crimes, but according to the statistics this is not true. Of course, the study is archaic and did not really progress understanding of female criminality, as Heidensohn points out, the observations made of the photographs are as objective as an adjudicator in a beauty contest. However, it does tell us about the perceptions of women in that time and that worked as a starting point for later theorists to use as a point of comparison and critique. Thomas Thomas early work Sex and Society[17]was more akin to the works of Lombroso in that it studied women in regards to their physiological energy, suggesting that women were altogether less creative than men and therefore were not destined to commit crime. It was critically lacking in its applicability to all women, as it focussed on immigrants and peasant women already seen as a lower species in that time, and again based ideas on detrimental societal views of women. His later work, The Unadjusted Girl,[18] however, was a first glance at the social reasons why women could commit crime, namely that women were more aware of their deprivation in society in his time of writing and therefore likely to be frustrated, leading to the disorganisation of [their] life and potentially to sexual delinquency'[19]. Society transformed whilst Thomas was writing and that because of the breakdown of traditional restraints on women they are more likely to be unadjusted. Here, instead of appreciating the progress, he displays contempt for the ideological change in society and thus promotes repression. He theorised that women from the start were trying to find the legitimate role of the good wife, mother and dutiful daughter and in failure of this they acquired the illegitimate role, that is to say the degenerative criminal or more usually the sexual delinquent. The legitimate role was merely a sign of the times dictated by the middle-class norm, not an adequate expl anation. Pollak In his work, The Criminality of Women in 1961, Pollaks argument was that women commit just as much crime as men but it is hidden, partly because of the social order in which women live, but also because of a womens physiology particularly in regards to sex. He agreed with Lombroso and Thomas in that the most likely degeneration of women was to prostitution, which was true at that time, but has no bearing on prostitution now. Prostitutes now, according to the Home Office website[20] are not there voluntarily and are usually forced into it. He explained that women were empirically deceitful and manipulative in their nature because they conceal their menstruation every month, and that their passive nature during sexual intercourse enables women to discover and acquire confidence in their ability to deceive men in all respects.'[21] Obviously Pollak could not get away from his apparent infuriation that it was men on show with their erection, and women could hide how they really felt. Her e Pollak has taken this idea and translated it into the assumption that all women are vengeful, manipulative and cruel deceitful beings, not really moving on from the perceptions of women in Lombrosos time. Regarding the statistics, Pollak was perhaps correct when he argued that women are likely to commit offences against family members; such as poisoning their husbands, sexually abusing or killing their children. And also that persons are less likely to report a crime committed to them by a woman, as Smart notes the victims are usually children and are unable to report the crimes of their parents.[22] But his basis for this conclusion is flawed as he overlooks crimes committed by men towards their family, makes judgements completely based on the sex discrimination in society at the time and again completely ignores that this is the case. Because of this, he would probably be surprised by, and would not fit in with his conclusions, the amount of hidden wife battering and domestic abuse committed by men that has come to light recently if he were writing today. He also suggests that because of their nature, their acts are cunning and vengeful (putting poison into their husbands food) explained because their vengeance is a product of their monthly reminder of their inferior status to men and they are the persons closely related to the domestic task of food preparation, again decisively based on the perceived domestic role of women at the time. His study does correspond with the current statistics in that women are likely commit crimes within the home, but his original study was not based on any real evidence but on societal assumptions and preconceptions about the behaviour of men and women, which at the time he was oblivious to the fact that the power and societal position of men and women was completely imbalanced. Chivalry Theory Pollak, considering the very low number of female criminals, also proposed that men, especially those in the CJS, had an innate chivalry towards women. He argued that they have the same (he would argue misconceived) conceptions of women as his societal counterparts do; that women are weak and fragile, but they have deceived themselves into believing this and not realised the true nature of women. They are therefore are less likely to report, charge and convict women for the offences they engage in.'[23] In all aspects of life, Pollak has described that women are treated less severely than men to their advantage and this discrimination is to mens disadvantage. However, as Smart notes, although recognising a darker side of chivalry he has not mentioned the disadvantages of this discrimination towards women, and does not criticise the double standards for men and women; he treats it as the norm. However, it could be suggested that this theory is adequate because it is very much in effect today. The CJS currently appears to deploy this innate chivalry that protects women from the full rigours of the law, which could explain why a great deal more women are cautioned than men. Chivalry gains its credence because it is how one would expect women to be treated in a society which stereotypically views them as delicate and in need of protection. Interestingly, the chivalrous nature of the law can be seen in practice as with regard to infanticide in particular, where the Home Office stated in rejecting the proposal to abolish this offence: That a mother can be charged with infanticide on the basis of the ingredients for manslaughter is in keeping with the desire to treat such cases with compassion, in particular the desire not to force a mother to be brought face to face with the admission of whether or not she intended to kill her child.[24] (Emphasis added) However, despite of this grave offence, it is mainly true today for perhaps petty crimes, where the statistics suggest that women are more likely to be cautioned than thoroughly processed in the CJS. But this could also be explained, not by chivalry, but because there is a strong urgency for diversion in the CJS, costs are always a priority, as is police time and resources. However, Pollaks theory generalises the lenience that women get, although it is relevant on some levels, it pays no heed to the fact that after due process, female murderers and those who commit very serious offences will go to prison. Modern Biological Determinism Hormonal and Mental Imbalance Although Lombrosos work is said to have continued to exert influence long after it was written[25], Edwards states that too much emphasis is sometimes placed on Lombroso as godfather of biological criminology, arguing that medical professionals, such as Icard, Krafft-Ebing and Krugelsten walked the terrain far before Lombroso. Despite the criticisms of biological positivism, it cannot be ignored that all women have undeniable stages in their development cycle[26] namely in menstruation, menopause and after giving birth. The common theory in this respect, for why women do commit crime, is that hormonal imbalance dictates their deviant behaviour, particularly violence. Even Lombroso found this link in his work after finding that 72 out of 80 women arrested for resisting public officials were menstruating at the time[27]. Contemporary criminologists such as McClean, Wood, Devlin and Mercier have also claimed the physiological differences between men and women as a reason for criminality, but have not given substantial reasons as to why the rest of the female population have not committed crimes whilst going through the same crisis periods.'[28] Freud lends a suggestion here as he believed people are born with anti-social criminal qualities, but the better amongst them learn to control this. His theory suggests women do not have the fear of castration (as do men baring the Oedipus complex) which would be used to control their impulses, but suggests their passivity and want of affection controls them. It is commonly known that women experience mood swings, tension, water retention and headaches, however, 19th century theory exaggerates the mood swings into unaccountable violence and intolerable evil and cruelty. The works of the late Dr Dalton whom coined the term PMS to describe the changes women experience in these times, and it is accepted by the law that there can be uncontrolled aggression at certain times of the month, and PMS has the possibility to be a mitigating factor in the sentencing of female criminals under diminished responsibility in the law of evidence in England. For example, in a case in 1981, Christine English killed her boyfriend by driving into him. After pleading guilty to manslaughter on grounds of diminished responsibility due to pre-menstrual syndrome she was conditionally discharged. Furthermore, biological theory has manifested itself into the law of infanticide in that the Infanticide Act 1938 s.1 (1) states: ..where a woman by any wilful act or omission causes the death of her child being a child under the age of 12 months, but at the time of her act or omission the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation. However it is curious to note that the medical profession refuses to accept this, in its definition, symptomatology, treatments or rates of manifestation[29]. Crimes such as infanticide can only be committed by a woman. Naturally, criminologists cannot in any way try to fit this crime into gender-neutral theories; there has to be something particular about women. On the other hand, infanticide still remains, according to the Law Commission in a Home Office Consultation Paper in 2008, a piece of legislation which is a practicable legal solution to a particular set of circumstances, which gives something to consider if there was no crime of infanticide. Accepting PMS and infanticide in the law gets varied responses, usually either outrage that a woman could literally get away with murder, or that recognition of biological happenings that every woman has is a positive step, however the deep rooted connotations are far more complex. Some might see it as positive that women are getting recognition, whereas others would see retrogressive irony in play; women want to gain equality, but they too are immersed in the want for allowances to be made for them, and also that PMS constructs womens normal experience and behaviour as abnormal'[30]. Furthermore, the masculinity of law does not understand womens problems, so it is easier to accept mental imbalance than challenge the norms of society, and so an account of PMS, as Raitt and Zeedyk suggest, is striking only because social norms dictate a particular baseline for womens behaviour and when they fail to meet that expectation, illness provides a convenient explanation[31] Consequently, Smart notes that, in principle, the law should be held to be equally applicable to all regardless of sex, (noting also, race, class and other distinctions) but in reality this does not happen. There are at all times a number of societal connotations or stereotypes, such as the chivalrous nature of men, and the stereotypical way women are perceived which overshadow what should be happening, and determine what does happen in regard to the study of crime, and although this should not be the case, it does reveal the underlying, discriminatory views towards women that would better be abandoned for the sake of the quality of explanations for criminality. Finally, it would be interesting to use substitution here. Firstly if women were in power in society, there would be no explanations for deviant behaviour down to PMS, as having PMS at certain times or experiencing the effects of childbirth and lactation would be the norm. There would probably be explanations for why men behave they do, for example neurosis because they cannot have children. Brain Function Although truly biological theories seem to have disappeared from criminology[32], Lansdell, in a study of laterality of verbal intelligence in the brain in 1962[33] noticed that when males and females had strokes or lobotomies, their recovery processes were different even though the injury was the same: women recovered better because they found that their brain hemispheres are more connected, enabling the female brain to possibly assimilate all sorts of information that male brains would keep separate. How this would become an explanation for female criminality would be quite complex and I would profess that it would see criminologists using these findings to merely support the well known stereotype that women can multitask. Nevertheless, it could be suggested that women have less chance of being caught as they could plan the offence thoroughly, or be able to perceive the consequences of their actions before they can perform an act which would render them criminal, but these would am ount to huge generalisations, and would not conclusively explain why women do or do not commit crime. Although it is arguable that as with any disease of the body

Stopping by the Woods Essay example -- essays research papers

"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" is by far one of my favorite works of modern poetry. The pensive, unhurried mood of the poem is reflected with a calm rich imagery that creates a vivid mental picture. The simple words and rhyme scheme of the poem give it an easy flow, which adds to the tranquility of the piece. Every aspect of the poem builds off the others to put the mind into the calm of a winter evening. The first stanza of the poem is rather simple and provides the basis for the imagery. It mentions the woods and implies that they are located away from town and civilization "his house is in the village though". It also shows the easy pace that speaker is taking, having plenty of time to simply watch the falling snow. As I think about them, the words of the first stanza are not overtly somber, they do however through their order and the way they were chosen create a rather pensive mood. The second stanza provides a more in depth view of the imagery sketched out in the first; it also provides a more definite time and location. The first two lines of this stanza firmly place the reader rather deep in the woods and away from any dwelling. He is so far out in fact that his horse is puzzled by his actions. The next line gives a better image of the scene "Between the woods and frozen lake"; it seems to be a rather quiet and lonely place. The next line then provides that it is night...

Inclusive Education Essay

This report details the role of educational inclusion, individual and general perspectives on inclusion and how the medical and social models have played a great part in the conception and in its application in regards to inclusion in the past and in recent times. Inclusion has different conception and used in certain terminology that relates to inclusion. It is used in different settings such as in social care and in the educational setting in the society today. In this report I will be focusing on the educational part. The Encarta English Dictionary defines inclusion as the addition of somebody or something to the rest of a whole. This definition has not specified who is to be included but a person or group being part and accepted by the rest of a whole. Inclusion have been defined and interpreted by many as just the integration of children with special educational needs (SEN) into mainstream school. According to (Rigby 2000) these kinds of misconception and viewpoints often lead to the misunderstanding and maltreatment in such a way that it creates room for continuous labelling, bulling and rejection by others without SEN. The term Inclusion according to (The Warnock 1978 Report) was initially used as integration, whereby children with SEN who have been educated in special schools where integrated into mainstream school provided they did not have any effect on adequate use of resources. The definition of inclusion is actually changing and moving, in the sense that, its concept and dynamism is now broader, people are now beginning to fully understand what it means and what it evolve in the society today. It is not just about people with special needs integrating or having the same capabilities to perform but having equal choices on where is more conducive they choose to live, having equal opportunity to engage in whatever they choose to do and being accepted the way they are (Giangreco 1997). Social Inclusion/ Social Exclusion There are no definite definitions for social inclusion and social exclusion, both of them has multiply definitions, it all depends on the context which it is used for and is still being developed. Exclusion can be defined as the act of excluding, or of shutting out, whether by thrusting out or by preventing admission; a debarring; rejection; prohibition; the state of being excluded (Inc Icon Group International 2008). According to the definition above, it indicates that social exclusion is multidimensional; people are not only excluded in the society because of their age, sex, religion, colour, disabilities, race and gender it can also be due to unemployment, homelessness, low income, poor mental health, locality, dysfunctional family, educational achievement, status in the society etc (SEU 2004). This group of people are said to be in a Cycle of Disadvantage ( Pope, Pratt and Hoyle, 1986). Article (136 and 137) of The (1997) Amsterdam Treaty was enacted in order to eliminate exclusion and promote economic and social cohesion. Social inclusion promotes integration and community cohesion, it builds the communities, promotes understanding and unity. Inclusive Education and Government Legislation According to (The 1944 Educational Act) it initially stated that, children’s education should be based on their age, aptitude and ability. During the Act establishment, there was a philosophy that children with special need were to be able fit in the school rather than the school making provision to accommodate them before gaining admission into the mainstream school. The (1944 Act) was in use until 1974, when the Warnock Committee was set up to review the provision that was available for children with Special Educational Need. This committee which was headed by Mary Warnock lead to the publication of the 1978 Warnock Report. The Report concluded that, they were about 20% of children in school population that might have Special Education Need and only 2% of which may require support in the mainstream school. The Warnock Report suggested that there should be a proper provision in place for children with Special Educational Need, which then will ensure that the 2% in mainstream school received the adequate provision. The 1978 Warnock Report had since lead to the enactment and development of various educations Act such as, (1981Education Act), (1993 Education Act), (1996 education Act) and the (2001 Special Educational Needs & Disability Act) All these Acts listed above reinforces government’s dedication and commitment to the fully inclusion of children with Special Education Needs into mainstream school and the society as a whole. Inclusive Education and Autism  Abraham Maslow formed a theory on ones personality that has a great influence on education. In his theory of human need, he emphasized that, the student with education need that has a wish or desire to belong to a normal group, that desire creates the motivation to acquire new skills, which the student can only achieve in a learning environment that is void of segregation. He further argued that the sense of belonging is the foundational need that that needs to be met in order to achieve the higher level self actualization. According to (Article 28) of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, it stated that every child has a right to education. No child should be discriminated, excluded or deprived on the basis of belonging to a particular group. Therefore Inclusive education can be defined as the integration of adults or children into mainstream school regardless their gender, age, disabilities, ethnicity, colour or impairment (Daniels and Garner 2000). Children with hidden disabilities like autism, which is a life time disability that affects the way a child communicates and interact within the society, are faced with difficulties of being fully included into mainstream school. Prior to the development of the Special Need Education, children with autistic spectrum were viewed under two models of disabilities, Medical or Social Model. These are ways how people viewed and acted towards people with disabilities. The Medical Model of Disability sees the illness in the person first and the individual second, this notion creates a bad and negative conception of disability (Cigman 2007). The Social Model of Disability sees the disable person first before their illness. This model sees the person as an individual, different and unique, who has an equal rights and opportunities to education and other essentials of life. The model recognises the fact that a disable person’s impairment does not regard him or her less than anyone else in the society.

Nabisco Brands History and Timeline

Nabisco Brands History and Timeline In 1898, the New York Biscuit Company and the American Biscuit and Manufacturing Company merged over 100 bakeries into the National Biscuit Company, later called Nabisco. Founders Adolphus Green and William Moore, orchestrated the merger and the company quickly rose to first place in the manufacturing and marketing of cookies and crackers in America. In 1906, the company moved its headquarters from Chicago to New York. Favorites like Oreo Cookies, Barnum’s Animal Crackers, Honey Maid Grahams, Ritz crackers, and Wheat Thins became staples in American snack foods. Later, Nabisco added Planters Peanuts, Fleishmann’s margarines and spreads, A1 Steak Sauce, and Grey Poupon mustards to its offerings. Timeline 1792 Pearson Sons Bakery opens in Massachusetts. They make a biscuit called pilot bread that is consumed on long sea voyages.1801 Josiah Bent Bakery first coined the term crackers for a crunchy biscuit they produce.1889 William Moore acquires Pearson Sons Bakery, Josiah Bent Bakery, and six other bakeries to start the New York Biscuit Company.1890 Adolphus Green starts the American Biscuit Manufacturing Company after acquiring forty different bakeries.1898 William Moore and Adolphus Green merge to form the National Biscuit Company. Adolphus Green is president.1901 The name Nabisco is first used as part of a name for a sugar wafer.1971 Nabisco becomes the corporate name.1981 Nabisco merges with Standard Brands.1985 Nabisco Brands merges with R.J. Reynolds.1993 Kraft General Foods acquires NABISCO ready-to-eat cold cereals from RJR Nabisco.2000 Philip Morris Companies, Inc. acquires Nabisco and merges it with Kraft Foods, Inc.